Apex Predators
Terrestrial mammalian predators are generally territorial, particularly those that hunt in packs. Like lions, wolves, and *Homo sapiens*, Neanderthals were cooperative hunters of large game. Sitting at the top of the food chain, these predators face few rivals; consequently, population pressure inevitably leads to conflict over hunting grounds. Neanderthals surely faced the same dilemma: without another species to regulate their numbers, conflict would have been inevitable.
The Human Condition
Warfare is an inextricable component of being human. It is not a modern invention, but an ancient, foundational element of our nature. Throughout history, all human societies have engaged in war. Our earliest records are saturated with accounts of conflict; archaeological excavations of ancient fortifications, battlefields, and sites of prehistoric massacres confirm the grim reality of this millennia-old legacy. In this regard, Neanderthals were our mirror image. Their skeletal anatomy closely mirrors our own, and we share 99.7% of our DNA. Behaviorally, they were remarkably similar: they mastered fire, buried their dead, fashioned jewelry from seashells and animal teeth, and constructed symbolic artifacts and stone monuments. If Neanderthals shared so many of our creative impulses, it is highly probable they shared our most destructive ones as well.A Violent Existence
The archaeological record confirms that the life of a Neanderthal was far from peaceful. They were skilled hunters of megafauna, using spears to fell deer, ibex, elk, bison, and even rhinoceroses and mammoths. They would not have hesitated to turn those same weapons against others to protect their families and territories. The evidence suggests such conflicts were routine.The Jallianwala Bagh Massacre: A Brutal Gift of British Civilization
Prehistoric warfare leaves distinct traces. A common, effective method of killing is a blow to the head with a blunt object—a fast, powerful, and decisive strike. Such trauma is frequently found on the skulls of prehistoric *Homo sapiens*. The same holds true for Neanderthals. Another sign of combat is the "parry fracture," an injury sustained while raising an arm to defend against a blow. Neanderthals exhibit a high frequency of such fractures. A Neanderthal found in Shanidar Cave, Iraq, had been pierced through the ribs by a spear. Among younger Neanderthal males, such trauma was a common cause of death. These injuries, consistent with small-scale but intense and prolonged guerilla-style ambushes, mirror the characteristics of endemic tribal warfare.Neanderthal Resistance
Warfare leaves subtle marks in the form of territorial boundaries. The fact that Neanderthals not only fought but excelled at it is evidenced by the fact that when we encountered them, they were not immediately vanquished. Rather, for nearly 100,000 years, Neanderthals successfully resisted the expansion of modern humans. One might ask why it took us so long to leave Africa. It was not because the environment was inhospitable, but because Neanderthals were already firmly established throughout Europe and Asia. It was not merely a matter of modern humans and Neanderthals coexisting. If nothing else, population growth would have forced humans to acquire more land, securing territory to hunt and forage for future generations. Aggressive military strategy is, after all, a potent evolutionary tactic. Instead, for millennia, we tested their mettle, and for millennia, we were repelled. In terms of weaponry, tactics, and strategic planning, we were largely matched. Neanderthals likely possessed a tactical advantage. Having occupied the Middle East for millennia, they undoubtedly held an intimate knowledge of the terrain, seasonal changes, and how to survive off local flora and fauna. Their massive, muscular frames made them devastating combatants in close-quarters skirmishes. Their large eyes likely granted them superior low-light vision, an invaluable asset for nighttime ambushes and dawn raids.The Sapiens Victory
Eventually, the stalemate broke, and the tide shifted. We cannot be certain why. It is possible that the advent of superior ranged weaponry—such as projectile bows, spear-throwers, and clubs—allowed us to harass the stocky Neanderthals from a distance using "hit-and-run" tactics. Or perhaps, improved hunting and gathering techniques enabled *Sapiens* to sustain larger tribes, providing the numerical superiority necessary to overwhelm them. Even after *Homo sapiens* began spreading out of Africa 200,000 years ago, it took us more than 150,000 years to conquer Neanderthal territory. Before the final *Homo sapiens* onslaught that began 125,000 years ago, early *Sapiens* in places like Israel and Greece were repeatedly pushed back or wiped out by Neanderthal counter-attacks. This was no easy conquest; the Neanderthals were neither pacifists nor weaklings. It was a war of attrition that spanned an epoch. In the end, we emerged victorious—not because they lacked the appetite for battle, but because, in the long run, we proved more proficient at it.Read the original article: War in the time of Neanderthals: how our species battled for supremacy for over 100,000 years by Nicholas R. Longrich, Senior Lecturer in Evolutionary Biology and Paleontology, University of Bath